TWO - Gallery report Guidelines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

TWO - Gallery report Guidelines - Essay Example The sculpture, which is important and rare, is one of the very few surviving art works which were made at one Emperor Duan Zhengxing’s request. Emperor Duan Zhengxing was the ruler of Dali Kingdom since the year 1147 to 1172. The bodhisattva Guanyin was made specifically on behalf of the two princes to ensure prosperity as well as longevity of the multitudinous sons. Creation of this kind of icon to represent the Ajava, Azuaye Guanyin or the all victorious Avalokitesvara has been shown in the Nanzhao hand scroll illustrated history in the mid 10th century, which gives details of the Buddhism miraculous introduction done by an Indian into Yunnan. The Indian monk was believed to be the bodhisattva’s incarnation. This sculpture importantly shows strong stylistic connections to Indian and south eastern Asian images but the flavor it retains in its own relative structure, linear style is Chinese (Brooklyn Museum). The art is made of cast bronze and also has traces of gold. I t is an Asian art collection made in between 11th and 12th century in Yunnan, China during the Dali kingdom period. It was a gift to the Asian air council, and placed in Brooklyn museum. Its dimensions are 18 7/8 x 4 1/2 x 3 in. (47.9 x 11.4 x 7.6cm). The stiffened frontal stance, ornate ornaments and the symmetrical robes impart informal, hierarchical sort of impression. However, there is some human tenderness right in the gentle face. The body is youthful, fragile and quite slender (Brooklyn Museum). This Guanyin cast bronze image, also known as God of Mercy, also known in ancient Indian language as Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, happens to be one of a small group of idols worshipped as the Indian monk’s incarnation. This is the Indian monk who introduced Buddhism in the Dali semi independent kingdom. This place is in south central China. The Bodhisattva is represented standing bare footed. Raised is its right hand in the vitarkamudra while its left hand has been extended in t he varadamudra. The art elaborates finely engraved hair style which is held twisted cords or braids which secure the image of Buddha Amitabha right above the crown that rests on the fore head of the figure (Brooklyn Museum). Finely sculpted is the face with a calm quite expression, flattened nose, pursed lips and long undulating eyes. It has pierced earlobes which have been decorated with some heavy earrings and they extend to the shoulders. Three flesh delicate folds form the neck with a wide surrounding of decorated necklace which is secured at the back with some loosely knotted cord. Right on the upper part of both arms, the figure wears some elaborate arm bands. In the right wrist, the figure also has a string of beads (Brooklyn Museum). Accented with some belt which has been added with eight petaled floral bosses to make it more beautiful is the slender high waist. The skirt with long pleats has been secured with the elaborate peace of clothe which has been knotted on the hips and at the front and there are stylized folds from the hands to the figure’s ankles. Also descending on the both sides and in between the legs of the figure are vertical pleats. Natha This was the Avalokitesvara art of the Anuradhapura period. This art was created between the 8th and the 9th century. It is basically a solid cast made of bronze Gilt. Natha like Guanyin was very popular but its

Crafting and Executing Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Crafting and Executing Strategy - Essay Example The taxi business section is operated by a fleet of 120 units headed by the taxi department while the other car rental functionality is operated by a fleet of 65 luxury vehicles with chauffer services available at the request of the clients. Both sections operate in ten different locations within the city. There are several players in the taxi business, and competition is relatively higher than in the luxury car rental section, which enables the company to diversify its markets. Under the circumstances of a business environment with challenges of different types such as economic volatility and continued competitors growth, a strategic plan is important in formulating the appropriate planning to overcome the challenges (Wasti, 2003). In terms of a volatile economic environment, a strategic plan enables the business to set goals within the potential and operation level that company affords and to produce the best possible sustainability results. In view of the competition experienced from rival companies in the transport section, it is imperative that the business stays ahead of the competitors by designing the most competitive products that enable sustainable operations. Better decision-making processes made from a vantage strategy view enable the business to make few mistakes and exploit the best opportunities achieved from appropriate decisions taken (Darbi, 2012). A strategic plan also facilitates the concentration of focus, resources, and energy on a com mon agreeable decision made on behalf of every participant of the company, and this reduces conflicts and divergent priorities. Customer satisfaction is facilitated by a competent team operating from a strategic plan as opposed to an ambiguous action approach. Alternatively, it is possible to grow a business brand from a coordinated strategy as opposed to a brand from an amorphous action approach. Drive America is a world-class transport service taking

Computer Software Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Computer Software - Essay Example The ultimate objective is to get ordinary persons to be able to use the computer for their requirements. The nature of software divides it into three portions - operating systems, languages and applications. The first of these is the operating system which sets down the laws for exchange of information between men and the machine. This is taken by users as being part of the machine and is generally seen by individuals when they first switch on their computers. In many cases, for individuals using a computer at home, this is Windows. Till the system becomes functional and the loading of Windows stops, the user will not be able to start using the machine. Anything that is typed by the operator before Windows is ready for taking instructions will only result in the computer just clogging up and stopping operations. At the same time, Windows is not the only possible operation for a computer, as it may also have "UNIX, Apple Mach, Ban, VMS, RS, OS2, Irix, AIX or HP-UX" among others. (Comp uter Software) However, the operating systems lead to files being written in particular languages, and thus it is difficult for information to be exchanged between computers which have different operating systems. This is very important today in view of the high usage of Internet and sending of mail across the world. That is made simpler as the language for sending information is generally Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox. Files in these languages are accepted by all operating systems so that communication is not interrupted. In the same machine also it is possible to have more than one language like having both Windows and Linux, though Windows does not recognize the existence of Linux as it is viewed as a competitor. The next question is of languages used for writing instructions for the operation of the computer. This is the language used by programmers so that the computer itself can translate their instructions to machine language for the operation of the computer. It is important to know that the operations of the computer are carried out in machine language and that is in the simple method of off or on. Off is viewed as zero, and on is viewed as 1. Thus 2 are written in machine language as 10, and three is written as 11, and four as 100. Similarly, there are also codes for the alphabets, and for every character, there are 16 bits or 32 bits being used now. This also results in large sizes for files in computers. One page of typed matter has a size of over 20,000 units of bits. This makes it essential that computers have large storage capacities, presently over 80 gigabytes or 80 trillion bytes. Coming back to the point that we were discussing, some common languages are "C, C++, FORTRAN, COBO L, Pascal, Perl and Java". (Computer Software) Presently, the language popular among programmers is Java, as the instructions in that language can be the shortest. However, the ultimate language for passing on all instructions to the computers is machine language, and

Research proposal in the public service (public services for example Essay

Research proposal in the public service (public services for example police, fire service etc...) - Essay Example are some of the important types of public services which a government arranges for the general public. With growing population, widening areas of services, growing public expectations, constant monitoring by the public and the media besides the government appointed regulatory mechanism the public services offices have come under severe pressure to perform well. The police services for example are now under pressure to sniff the terror plots being hatched by terrorists. In addition the crimes like online identity theft, internet banking frauds etc. are further addition to the list of crimes that the local police department is supposed to investigate. The manpower and resources on the other hand has not been match up with the exponential numbers and types of crimes. It is under such circumstances that at some places, question marks are being raised about the effectiveness of the public services. Discussions are also being held to figure out the possible remedial measures that could be taken up by the government/s to make such services more effective and efficient. The main intention of the study is to develop a better understanding of the concepts of public services in general and their effectiveness in these challenging times. During the study an effort would be made to study some of the recent incidents where the role of public services has been quite constructive. In addition, some such incidents will also be analysed where the role of public services has been criticised in the media or amongst the intelligentsia. The study will try to seek answers to the following key objectives. i. To analyze the availability of some pre-identified public services with respect to the numbers of people. This will involve comparison of per capita availability of such services in different regions. ii. What types of expectations do the general populace have from the government of the day iii. Find out the impact of public private cooperation in some fields. As a part of the corporate social responsibility, a number of corporate houses have also come forward in lending a helping hand to the people and the government. An effort would be made to assess how successful such associations proved in the recent past. iv. As responsible citizens we too have a responsibility towards the state and nation, which implies that we must allow the public service offices to function in an effective manner without hampering their cause or without burdening them with our irresponsible behaviour. An effort would therefore be to assess how conscious the citizens are towards their duty as responsible citizens in making the public services more effective. v. Analyse some of the public services like Fire services, police services, health services etc. This will be an effort to point out some areas which require attention in order to make such services more effective. Approach Research approaches and methods radically influence research content and, consequently, the policies designed in response to that content. If carried out in an objective manner, research not only helps the researcher in knowing about many unknown aspects, but it often provides a benchmark for future researches as well. This thesis is more of a qualitative case study which focuses on an

How the Police Access Data to Obtain Criminal Information Assignment

How the Police Access Data to Obtain Criminal Information - Assignment Example He lives in California and was visiting us in Miami for a break from his work, about which we knew nothing about. It was a cool evening and we being late for the opening pitch, uncle Bobby was driving way over the speed limit when a police patrol car appeared from nowhere and told us to pull over which we did. My uncle told me to stay in the car while he went out to talk to this big cop. After a few moments the cop reached for his radio and mumbled something into it. After a few minutes to my horror he handcuffed my uncle, checked my license and told me to drive home, just after he told me that my uncle had a warrant out in California. Research How did a cop of MPD know about outstanding warrants in California? I got intrigued and started looking for answers. I came up with a few observations about the digital media and its integration with the modern police force. Firstly, my uncle had previous criminal record in California. Therefore the police Record Management System (RMS) in Cal ifornia had every piece of personal information of an offender in there state properly indexed and catalogued (Raymond, 2005). So now comes the query that even if a criminal has outstanding warrants and all sorts of records in the state of California, how a trooper retrieved that information on a highway from his car through a wireless radio.

Against Same Sex Marriage Essay Example for Free

Against Same Sex Marriage Essay The legalization of the marriage between same sex couples will permanently change the rite of marriage in our society. The legalization of homosexual marriage will quickly destroy the traditional family. Marriage is the institution that forms and upholds for society, the cultural and social values and symbol related to procreation. That is, it establishes the values that govern the transmission of human life to the next generation and the nurturing of that life in the basic societal unit, the family. Through marriage our society works out the relationship of two people who will together create and nurture a new generation. To change the definition of marriage to include same sex marriage couples would destroy its capacity to function in many ways. It could no longer represent procreative relationships of opposite sex marriages.Reproduction is the fundamental occurrence on which the future of life depends. It is the primary reason why marriage is so important to society. In same sex marriages procreation would be eliminated entirely. First, when the state sanctions homosexual relationships and gives them its blessing, the younger generation becomes confused about sexual identity and quickly loses its understanding of lifelong commitments, emotional bonding, sexual purity, the role of children in a family, and from spiritual prospective, the sanctity of marriage. Marriage is reduced to a partnership that provides attractive benefits and sexual convenience. Cohabitation and short term relationships are the inevitable result. Second, the introduction of legalized gay marriages will lead to polygamy and other alternatives to the one man, on woman unions. Why will gay marriage set the table for polygamy? Because there is no place to stop once the line has been crossed. Historically, the definition of marriage has rested on a foundation of tradition, legal precedent, theology, and the overwhelming support of the people. After the introduction of marriage between homosexuals it will be supported by nothing more substantiated than the opinion of a single judge or by a black-robed panel of justices (Marriage under Fire). After their decision, the family will consist of little more than someones interpretation of rights. Given that unstable legal judgment, it is certain some self-possessed judge, somewhere, will soon rule that three men or three women can marry. How about group marriage or marriage between cousins, or marriage between parent and child? How about marriage between a man and his animal? Anything allegedly linked to civil rights will be doable. The legal underpinnings for marriage will have been destroyed. These other couples restricted from marrying are not equivalent to homosexual couples, but are necessary to illustrate that marriage is heavily regulated, and for good reason. When a state recognizes a marriage, it bestows upon the couple certain benefits which are costly to both the state and other individuals. Collecting a deceased spouses social security, claiming an extra tax exemption for a spouse, and having the right to be covered under a spouses health insurance policy are just a few examples of its costly benefits associated with marriage. In a sense, a married couple receives a subsidy. A marriage between two unrelated heterosexuals is likely to result in a family with children. For this reason, states have, in varying degrees, restricted from marriage, couples unlikely to produce children. One may argue that lesbians are capable of procreating via artificial insemination, so the state does have an interest in recognizing lesbian marriages, but a lesbians sexual relationship, committed or not, has no bearing on her ability to reproduce (Single Parent: What Helps, What Hurts). However, there is ample evidence that children need both female and male parent for proper development. It is essential for a child to be nurtured by parents of both sexes if a child is to learn to function in a society made up of both sexes (Life without Father). With the legalization of homosexual marriage, every public school in the nation will be required to teach that this lifestyle is the moral equivalent of traditional marriage between a woman and a man. Textbooks, even in conservative states, will have to depict man/man and woman/woman relationships and stories written for children as young as elementary or even kindergarten, will have to give equal space to homosexuals. Every public school will also be forced to teach that same sex marriage and homosexuality are perfectly normal. They will teach little boys  and little girls that husband and wife and father and moother are merely optional for a family and therfore, meaningless (No Gay Marriage). Same sex families deny children either a mother or father. In certain cases, the same sex family is not driven by the needs of children, but rather by the radical wishes of a small group of adults. Thousands of published social science, psychological and medical studies show that children living in fatherless families, on average, suffer dramatically in every measure of well-being. These children suffer from higher levels of loneliness, physical or mental illness, behavior problems, educa tional failure or criminal troubles. The third reason marriage between homosexuals will destroy traditional marriage is that this is the ultimate goal of activists, and they will not stop until they achieve it. Homosexual activists, with their inner power and exhilaration, feel the political climate is right to tell us what they have wanted all along. Gay marriages are likely to do for gay rights what the rallying cry of abortion on demand did for the Equal Rights Amendment and the womens movement. It diverts the real debate on every level. It reduces the cause of gay rights to a single issue. But the real deal is most gays and lesbians do not want to marry each other. They do not want to entangle themselves in all sorts of legal constraints (Single Parent What Helps, What Hurts). In a perfect democratic world, gay marriage would be an option for those who want it. However, this world is not a perfect democracy, and the fight for gay marriage is the wrong fight at the wrong time (Focus on Family). In conclusion, the reason for excluding same sex couples from marriage matters: If the reason for denying homosexual marriage is that we have no respect for same sex couples and their relationships and want to give the message that homosexuality is wrong, then that is discrimination and that is wrong. On the other hand, if the reason is to keep the very nature, essence and substance of marriage intact, and the essence is to protect the procreative relationship, then excluding same sex couples from marriage is ethically acceptable. This such refusal is not discrimination. Ethics requires us to take the least invasive, least restrictive alternative, reasonably available and likely to be effective in achieving a justified  goal. Maintaining a traditional marriage and legally recognizing same sex partnerships fulfills that ethical requirement (Why Marriage Matters). Gay and lesbian people have a right to form meaningful relationships. They do not have a right to redefine marriage for all of us. What will happen to society if marriage becomes anything or everything or nothing? The short answer is that the state will lose its compelling interest in marital relationships altogether. After marriage has been redefined, divorces will be obtained instantly, will not involve a court, and will take on the status of a drivers license or hunting permit. With the family out of the way, all rights and privileges of marriage will accrue to gay and lesbian partners without the legal entanglements and commitments associated with it. These are a few reasons why I am against homosexual marriage. Legalizing it will change everything, especially the institution of the family. Every society needs natural marriage- as many men as possible each finding a woman, caring for and committing himself exclusively to her- working together to create and raise the next generation.

Definitions Of Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay

Definitions Of Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay The aim of this chapter is to look at relevant research studies in relation to assessment in the classroom context, and to explore the role of classroom assessment in more details, with a specific focus on formative language assessment. It appears that the teachers classroom assessment practices and strategies may directly impact learners learning, and this includes young learners.(Oksana:not only with young learnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..so what should I put here) Classroom teachers are in the front line of helping learners learning and assessing their performance in the classroom. Thus, the literature review is mainly concerned with the role of classroom assessment and the relationship between classroom assessment practices and learning. The following section clarifies some terminology and explores the links between assessment and learning with young language learners in the EFL context through a review of literature on experiences of assessment with primary-age learners. 2.2 Definitions of assessment and classroom-based assessment In this section, the definition of the term assessment is provided and the definition of classroom-based assessment (CBA) is discussed to provide more details of the relationship between assessment and learning in classrooms. In the educational context, the term assessment is often associated with testing for most of the teachers, learners and other stakeholders. However, testing is only one element of assessment and it actually encompasses a wider range of factors from tests to dynamic and collaborative activities and tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the difference between assessment and testing before looking at the definition of classroom-based assessment(Oksana: insert page numberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦what?). 2.2.1 The distinction between assessment and testing Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003: 4) provide a broader interpretation of assessment; they describe assessment as a general term which includes all methods used to gather information about childrens knowledge, ability, understanding, attitudes and motivation. Assessment can be carried out through a number of instruments (for example, test, self-assessment), and can be formal or informal. This definition suggests that teachers may use both formal and informal methods to collect information in relation to learners performance, such as their ability and attitudes, as an evidence of learning. Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (ibid) point out that assessment refers to all kinds of methods, whether they are formal or informal, with the aim of collecting evidences of learners learning.(Oksana: similar to above, suggestion: remove it) The studies of Rea-Dickins(2000), Lambert and Lines (2000) go further to suggest that assessment is a constant ongoing process rather than a onetime thing. Rea-Dickins (2000) illustrates assessment as the general process of monitoring of keeping track of the learners progress. (p. 376). She highlights that such process is a continuous method to monitor the learners performance. Lambert and Lines (2000) also show the similar view of point, they define assessment as the process of gathering, interpreting, recording and using information about pupils responses to educational tasks (p. 4) From their viewpoint, assessment is related to what teachers do during the process of teaching and learning, including gathering, diagnosing, recording and using information about pupils performance and feedback. As can be seen, assessment is a part of both teachers and learners life within classroom and is integrated to the process of teaching and learning. It is also used to monitor and respond to lea rners regular work, such as learning activities, tasks and tests. On the other hand, testing refers to a procedure that is used to measure learners ability by teachers and examiners (Rea-Dickins, 2000). According to Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003), testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used by teachers to assess learners performance in order to understand whether the learner has achieved this objective or not. They also point out that testing used tasks or exercises and assigns marks or grades based on quantitative results (p. 4) This seems to suggest that testing is one of the tools that used by teachers to assess their learners ability and is a way to demonstrate what learners have learnt. It also implies that testing is a onetime thing rather than an ongoing process. As can be seen, testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used to collect quantitative results, in terms of marks or grades. It is used to measure what the learners have learnt and to check whether they have met their goal or not; meanwhile, assessme nt refers to all methods of collecting both quantitative and qualitative data in relation to learners performance and is a continuous process. (Oksana: Yes, but it is classroom based assessment specifically that does thisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..what?)In fact, through clarifying the boundaries between testing and assessment may help us to get insight into the meaning and definition of classroom-based assessment. 2.2.2 Definition of Classroom-Based Assessment Classroom-based assessment is defined by Airasian as the process of collecting, synthesizing and interpreting information to aid in classroom decision making (2005, p. 2). He highlights the work that teachers need to take during the process of assessment in the classroom context, with the aim of supporting teachers in decision making, such as deciding what forms of assessment are most appropriate for gaining information about learners learning and measuring achievement. In classrooms, teachers collect data in relation to learners needs, strength, and weakness and try to interpret the information on the basis of teachers own beliefs, capacities and knowledge. They then provide help to learners and may be able to support individual learning needs. Such ongoing processes, including assigning grades, providing feedback and learning opportunities, and modifying the teaching and learning, are aiming to renew, keep track and record learners performance in the classroom. By doing so, teacher s may be able to enhance learners learning and help them to close the gap between their current status and their target level (Sadler 1989). Further, Mckay describes that classroom assessment or teacher assessment refers to assessment carried out by teachers in the classroom (2006, p. 140). He then notes that classroom assessment may be formative, for instance, when the purpose is to provide feedback to help learners improve learning, or it may be summative, when the purpose is to record and report pupils achievement and attainment (Rea-Dickins 2000). As can be seen, the purposes for classroom assessment may lead to using assessment information formatively or summatively by teachers. For example, they may need to use formative assessment to identify learner needs and use summative assessment to provide learners achievement to school authorities in the end of a school year. In fact, there are a variety of purposes for teachers to use classroom assessment. Rea-Dickins suggests three objectives of using classroom assessment: teaching, nurturing learning, and measuring learning (2000). In other words, teachers may use classro om assessment to modify their teaching methods and materials, provide appropriate help to learners and meet the bureaucratic demands. Classroom assessment plays a significant role in collecting information about learners learning and can also be used to support teachers teaching and learning (Rea-Dickins, 2001). It is a continuous and integrated process which can be planned in advance as well as be unplanned, such as observing learners language performance during the course of teaching and assessment activities. The roles of teachers may have an impact on learners learning in the classroom, whether as facilitators to develop learners language development or as assessors to measure learners language learning, (Rea-Dickins, 2008). Teachers may use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. It is important for teachers to develop classroom assessment skills and strategies, and bring about positive change in classrooms. The aims of adopting classroom assessment strategies are to support learners learning and te achers teaching, and to meet the ultimate achievement of the curriculum goals. Rea-Dickins (2001) provides a model of classroom assessment which illustrates teachers roles in four stages in the classroom assessment process (see Figure 2.1). It also reveals the fact that teachers may need to play a mediating role in order to deal with various demands from improving learning and modifying teaching. For instance, in stage 1, the Planning stage, teachers may be interpreters to explain the learning goals and assessment criteria with learners and evaluators to identify learners needs and levels. They may become supporter in stage 2 in order to scaffold learners and provide feedback to them. As for stage 3, teachers may also need to be interpreters to interpret the learning evidence and improvers to refine the assessment process; meanwhile, they may need to be reports to report and record the learning progress to administrative authorities. Stage 1: Planning Identifying the purpose for the assessment?(why?) Choosing the assessment activity(how) Preparing the learners for the assessment Who chooses/decides for each of the above Stage 4: Recording Dissemination Recording reporting progress toward NC Formal review for LEA or internal school purposes Strategies for dissemination of formal review of learners Stage 2: Implementation Introducing the assessment(why, what, how) Scaffolding, during assessment activity Learner self- peer monitoring Feedback to learners(immediate) Stage 3: Monitoring Recording evidence of achievement Interpreting evidence obtained from an assessment Revising teaching and learning plans Sharing findings with other teachers Feedback to learners (delayed) Figure 2.1 Process and strategies in classroom assessment  [1]   However, teachers may not be able to predict the complex interaction between these two assessment purposes before actually implementing the assessment active. For instance, teacher-planned summative assessment may also provide formative assessment opportunities for students during the teaching process. Rea-Dickins (2006) points out that the boundary and interaction between formative and summative purposes of assessment cannot be identified in any watertight way in advance, as they will unfold and be enacted through the classroom discourse (p. 183). As can be seen, teachers need to be flexible with their classroom assessment practices and be able to use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. Thus, it is important for teachers to understand the functions of both formative and summative assessments and how to use them to modify their teaching, enhance pupil achievement, and report to school authorities, parents and other stakeholders. 2.3 The Functions of Classroom Assessment: Formative and Summative Assessment On the basis of the definition of classroom assessment (2.2), classroom assessment may be used as a variety of instruments by teachers to collect data in relation to learners needs, ability, knowledge, understanding and performance in the classroom. This seems to imply the primary role teachers play in classroom assessment process and the importance of linking formative and summative assessment to effectively enhance learners learning and report it to other stakeholders, including parents, other teachers, learners themselves, and school authorities. In this section, the functions of classroom assessment, in terms of formative and summative assessment, will be discussed, particularly with assessment for learning, through a review of the literature in relation to the role of both formative and summative assessment in classrooms. 2.3.1 The Role of Formative and Summative Assessment Classroom teachers are in the front line of assisting learners to develop their ability and enhance their learning, thus, it is crucial for teachers to recognize the different functions and characteristics between formative and summative assessments and to integrate them into everyday teaching and learning. Harlen and James (1997) share the different roles of formative and summative assessment in classroom assessment. They urge the need to distinguish the differences between formative and summative assessment, in terms of the functions and characteristics, and then connect and wave them together. To reveal the complexities of the differences between formative and summative, some research reports have provided a variety of interpretations to help teachers to clarify the concept of formative and summative assessment. According to the report of Task Group on Assessment and Testing, known as TGAT, it defines formative and summative assessment through clarifying the different purposes and timing between them. For formative assessment, teachers may use it to understand the the positive achievements of a pupil (DES/WO, 1988, para. 23) (Oksana: This is quite an old reference, is there anything newer/more recent on this point?)and then plan their teaching in order to help the pupil to reach to the next step. It highlights the dynamic process of teaching and learning in the classroom and more importantly, it points out the future direction through using the results of assessment. Formative assessment is a continuous process of adjusting teachers teaching and learners learning; meanwhile, summative assessment is used for systematic recording of learners overall achievement. In other words, teachers may use summative assessment to note learners performance, such as recording the grade or scores of teacher made and standardized tests, after a certain period of time. In 2001, Clarke expressed similar views in providing a clear illustration for formative and summative assessment: If we think of our children as plantsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦summative assessment of the plants is the process of simply measuring them. The measurements might be interesting to compare and analyse, but, in themselves, they do not affect the growth of the plants. Formative assessment, on the other hand, is the garden equivalent of feeding and watering the plants directly affecting their growth (p2). As can be seen, the main function of formative assessment is to nurture pupils and improve learning, which is a continuous process of interaction between teachers and learners. For instance, in classrooms, teachers provide guidance for learners toward improvement through formative assessment feedback during the processes of teaching and learning. As for summative assessment, it takes place after the teaching and learning. Teachers may grade or make judgments in relation to learners learning in order to inform and report to other stakeholders. In the classroom, teachers use formative assessment to help learners learning as well as modify their own teaching methods and materials. They also use summative assessment to assign grades and report attainment at the end of a school year for administrative purposes (Bachman Palmer 1996). As such, formative assessment requires the ability of the teacher to diagnose learners performance, in terms of what causes him or her to get struck, and to help learner to understand what to learn, how they learn, and how well they have learned. 2.3.2 Formative Classroom Assessment: assessment for learning More recently, the focus of the classroom assessment studies has shifted from forms of test to the interactions between assessment and classroom learning. This shift also highlights the importance of the improvement of learning through formative teacher assessment. Black and Wiliam (1998) review a variety of past research studies in relation to classroom formative assessment. They point out that several empirical studies show evidence to support the claim that improving formative assessment do raise standards and help pupils learning, particularly with low ability pupils. They also present evidence in relation to how teachers use formative assessment practices and strategies to enhance pupils learning in the field of general education. A broader explanation of formative assessment is provided by Black and Wiliam, they illustrate that all those activities undertaken by teachers, and/or by their students, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged (1998, p.7). Their interpretation not only points out that formative assessment activities can be used by both teachers and learners but also indicates how teachers and students use feedback to adjust the teaching and learning. From this perspective, formative assessment is embedded in teaching and learning and can be used to prompt learner learning. Key formative assessment strategies, such as effective teacher feedback, teacher scaffolding, self- and peer- assessment, and raising learners self-esteem and motivation, may be integrated and embedded within teacher-learner(s) interactions(Rea-Dickins 2006). As can be seen, the activities that conduct by teachers, such as observation, teacher made tests, take-home tasks, and learners, including self- and peer- assessment, would provide information to help both teachers and learners improve themselves. Further, Brindley (2001) points out formative assessment should undertake by teachers during the learning process, by doing so, teachers can use the results to improve instruction (p. 137). In addition, Sadler (1989) connects formative assessment with feedback and believes that feedback to teachers and to learners are separate. He suggests that the aim of using feedback for teachers is to diagnose learners performance and modify their teaching in order to help learners to enhance their abilities; meanwhile, for learners, the purpose of using feedback is to monitor their performance and understand their own learning weaknesses and strengths. Further, Tunstall and Gipps (1996, p.393) identify two types of feedback used by teachers in classrooms: evaluative and descriptive feedback respectively. They suggest that the former seems to be more close to affective and conative (effort-based) aspects of learning with a performance goal, whereas the latter places the emphasis on the cognitive development with a mastery goal. Teachers act as facilitators in providing descriptive types of feedback, such as making suggestions and questioning as part of discussion, rather than directing (p. 401). As can be seen, there is a greater links between descriptive feedback and formative assessment. However, Torrance and Pryor (1998) point out that teacher feedback may have a negative influence on learners, for instance, when the teacher tries to correct learners mistakes which may lead to the impression of learners producing wrong answers. It may even be seen as criticism by the pupils and discourage learners self-esteem. Further, teacher feedback with praise may result in encouraging competition among learners instead of increasing learners motivation. Thus, it is important for teachers to recognize the influences and impact of formative assessment feedback on learner motivation and self-esteem. To sum up, classroom assessment is used by teachers to collect data in relation to the process and attainment of learners with aim of responding to individual needs and curricular demands. Formative assessment is crucial in enhancing learner learning and closing the gap between learners actual level and potential level. The following section explored assessment of young language learners in a foreign classroom context through review of past research studies in relation to classroom assessment in practice. 2.4Research on Assessment of Young Learners in the EFL Classrooms In this section, the relevant research studies of classroom assessment of young language learners are explored, followed by introducing a unique Taiwanese educational context, in terms of learning English in private ESL schools, as the classroom assessment context in this research. 2.4.1 Classroom Assessment of Young Language Learners Rea-Dickins (2000) points out that since the 1990s research studies in relation to assessment for foreign language learners has been more in evidence (e.g., Low et al., 1993; McKay et al., 1994; Edelenbos and Johnstone,1996; Breen et al., 1997; Leung and Teasdale, 1997). Language Testing proposes a special issue that is focusing on assessment for young language learners, who ages 5 to about 12, in the school system. The key idea of these reports in this issue is related to a variety of purposes for assessment for young language learners within an early years language learning curriculum which results in raising the awareness of wider issues in relation to assessment of young language learners, such as how the validity of classroom-based assessment is achieved. Teadeale and Leung (2000) draw the attention to the validity of implement alternative assessment and monitoring learners learning performance through teacher assessment. Rea-Dickins and Gardner (2000) also look at the same issue in relation to the implementation of formative classroom assessment, in terms of keeping track of learners language development, in the English as a Second Language (ESL) context. Their findings suggest the potential variables which may influence the validity of teacher assessment during the assessment procedure. This is followed by Gattullo who explores the way to implement formative assessment in the Italian primary foreign language classroom, where English is taught since grade 3 (age 8). She investigates different formative assessment processes through analyzing classroom assessment discourses and she also observes the everyday interactions between teachers and learners. The results suggest that instead of using formative assessment actions which may be m ore beneficial for learning, including observing process, examining product and metacognitive questioning; teachers use more common actions, such as questioning, correcting and judging. Continuing the theme of formative assessment of primary learners in the EFL context, Zangl (2000) provides the methods of assessment to gain information in relation to primary-age learners language skills. She argues that teachers may be able to draw a developmental picture for individual learners, including their general interactional skills and specific language skills, through ongoing assessment throughout primary school. Hasselgren (2000) looks at the innovative ways to develop materials, such as tests, teacher assessment, and learners self-assessment, which can improve both teachers and learners assessment skills in Norwegian primary schools. In the context of Norway, one significant difference is that there is no tradition of testing for young language learners due to local policy. This contributes to high-demand assessment methods, particularly in materials development and task design, and to the implementation of formative assessment, in terms of assessment for learning. Both teachers and learners are encouraged to develop their ability to assess. As can be seen, the national policy is one of important variables that influences teachers attitude towards integrating classroom-based assessment into their everyday language teaching. It is also crucial to take variables, such as learners prior cultural knowledge, teachers knowledge and ability in assessment, and the English curriculum, into account when assessing primary-age learners of English as a foreign language. Teachers should choose and design the appropriate assessment material for Young language learners. The material should be well adapted to learners cognitive and linguistic skills and to their interests. The work of Hasselgren suggests that classroom assessment may be influenced by a variety of factors, particularly by the national policy. These external elements, such as the government policy and English curriculum, may have direct impact on the implementation of assessment, teachers attitude towards classroom assessment and their classroom assessment practices in the EFL context. A brief history of primary school English education in Taiwan is explored in the next section to gain insight into a special English classroom in Taiwan. 2.4.2 ESL Program in Taiwan English teaching and learning for young learners has become increasingly important in Asian countries, such as Taiwan, China, Japan and Korea, where learners study English as a Foreign Language (EFL) over the past few decades. At this point it is useful to clarify some terminology before introducing the English educational context in Taiwan. The term English as a Second Language (ESL) used in countries, , such as Canada, North America and Australia, which refers to learners who are using English as the medium of instruction in school contexts but who are not English first language (L1) speakers (Rea-Dickins, 2000, p. 115). On the other hand, the term English as Foreign Language (EFL) refers to when English is taught to non-native English speakers in non- English speaking areas, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa. In 1997, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan decided to implement curricular and instructional reforms in elementary and junior high school education. One of the most significant changes is that English courses are officially introduced in grade 3 (age 9) with two 40-minute lessons per week (Ministry of Education, Republic of China, 2010). Since then, learning English has become a popular movement for young learners from the ages of 5 to 12 across the country. Butler (2004) points out that some Asian countries, such as Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, have introduced English language instruction at the elementary school level, with special focus on oral communication skills. Although the officially suggested starting age is 9, most parents want their children to learn English as soon as possible. The assumption of the younger the better in foreign language acquisition is supported by many Taiwanese parents, who believe an early start will help their children to achieve greater profici ency. These factors above contribute to the significant growth in the number of cram schools and private language schools across the country over the last decade. Cram school also known as abuxiban in Taiwan are very common and popular in competitive Asian countries, particularly in Taiwan and Japan. The aim of these schools is to help pupils to enhance their achievement scores (Harnisch, 1994; Oneil Fukumura, 1992; Stevenson Stigler, 1992). In 1999, a report from China Central News, on 6 April 1999, stated that at least more than one quarter of elementary pupils attend private language institutions after school to learn English. Tsai and Kuo (2008) report that there are more than 5,000 cram schools in Taiwan. Most English cram schools offer additional after-school teaching to enhance pupils English ability. In particular, numerous so-called ESL schools aim to help Taiwanese learners to learn English as a Second Language (ESL) through using American elementary textbooks and teaching all subjects, including handwriting, computer, music, social science, reading, math, science, grammar, phonics and writing, in English. They also offer an ESL p rogram to kindergarten children of 3 years old up to students in grade 6 (age 12). In general, kindergarten pupils and grade 1 to 2 learners receive an average of 4 to 5 lessons a day, each 30 minutes long. As for grade 3 to 6 learners, they receive approximately 2 to 3 lessons a day due to their longer elementary school hours. Such ESL schools provide a unique educational context to investigate these ESL English teachers perceptions of classroom assessment and their own classroom assessment practices.